限制保护主义,第19条第( 1 )款( a )回顾

Pranati Ishwar2008年1月5日

创始印度宪法高度重视言论自由和新闻自由 他们认为言论自由和新闻自由的运作必不可少的民主制度 他们知道当渠道表达已经关闭政府同意的情况下管辖将很快排除 在心灵的烙印的信息国父圣雄甘地这种演变的民主是不可能的如果一个不准备听取对方 他们赞同思想的贾瓦哈拉尔尼赫鲁谁说

 

  我宁愿有一个完全自由的新闻媒体与所有涉及的危险错误使用这种自由不是压制或管制新闻 ” 。 [ 1 ] 难怪制宪大会成员欢呼保证言论自由的最重要 “ , ” 自由宪章 “ , ” 关键的基本权利 “ , 并在条件类似的eulogistic 。 [ 2 ]

 

同时意识到这是言论自由像任何其他自由不能是绝对的和无限制的 言论自由是本身不是目的 这是手段实现在这个社会里法律和秩序的普遍和基本人权和人的尊严得到尊重 陛下Seervai是一个强有力的维护者的言论自由 但他不认为这种自由是绝对的 如果表达有害人荣誉和名誉他将努力维护该人声誉像他那样的情况下Lawande教授在他的诽谤诉讼孟买大学 再次如果该出版物可能扰乱法律和秩序或损害后果的社会他将毫不犹豫地支持其取缔

 

言论和表达自由的保障作为一项基本权利第19条第1 ) ( a ) 的印度宪法 第19条2规定了限制根据该负责人可以对这一权利   这是无可争议的情况下有可能令扣留的新闻和信息的一个临时期限 例如运动军队在战时或细节的救援行动自由关押人质的恐怖分子 ; 或报告社区或种族屠杀的出版物在某一特定的时间点肯定会加剧紧张局势的关切之间的种族或社区并导致暴力冲突

 

言论自由和检查

 

一旦接受这一讲话可以在某些情况下受到限制一些形式的检查变得不可避免 这确实是一个矛盾人类渴望的年龄相匹配的表达欲望的抑制并检查了一个古老的和几乎是普遍现象 它出现在一种或另一种形式在不同的时间在不同社会的不同制度 柏拉图是一个可敬的指数 米尔顿谁一声在他著名的Areopagitica , “ 给我自由的知情权并主张完全自由地根据良知 ,尤其是自由 ” , 成为克伦威尔官方检查员

 

令人烦恼的问题的检查是容许的范围限制言论自由在打击的权利之间的平衡保护言论自由和合法利益的社会 困难在于没有制定这一主张概念但在把它付诸实践因为有不同看法的功能自由言论也没有统一的社会价值和社会利益需要加以保护的 ' 攻击 ' 的言论自由

 

此外什么促使检查是一个复杂的网络的原因其中之一是心理即强迫需要防止或制止不快的言论和图片 另一个是政治或宗教既得利益保持现状 此外还有社会和道德因素动机是热切希望维护一个 ' 干净 ' 的社会

 

prohibiting censorship. 没有任何规定禁止印度宪法审查因此在日本宪法 [ 3 ] 和德国宪法 [ 4 ] 禁止新闻检查 同样美洲人权公约美洲 ) [ 5 ] 明确规定第13条2 ) , 言论自由不得事先审查 ” 。

 

仅仅4个月后印度成为一个独立的共和国该国的最高法院在1950年5月以解决之间的紧张关系言论自由和新闻检查Brij尚v新德里国 。 [ 6 ] 第71 )款( c ) 东部旁遮普省安全法规定1949年提交的所有材料拟发布的官方检查如果该国政府感到满意的是这种行动是必要的目的是防止或打击任何活动有损公众安全或维持社会命令 该法院宣布的法定条文违宪的问题理由是有限制范围以外的第19条2 ) , 因为它站起身不包括 ' 公共秩序 ' 作为允许头的限制 法院没有规定事先审查本身违宪 事实上在1957年法院坚持实行检查旁遮普特别权力新闻法1956年的临时期间在法律规定的权利的代表性政府 。 [ 7 ] 法官是人和当代的事件中阴影关于司法思想 法院在很多情况下旁遮普省的影响出现了紧张之间的印度教徒和Akalis ,一个锡克组对这个问题的分区的旁遮普邦他们担心可能爆发到社区的狂热和派系斗争扰乱公共秩序的国家的边界是一个外国的国家 。 “ [ 8 ] 值得注意的是然而另一法律规定实行检查没有任何时间限制并没有提供任何权利代表被法院所在判决的同一天 。 [ 9 ]

 

印度最严重的刷子与检查期间发生的紧急状况政府宣布总理英迪拉甘地于1975年6月25日 检查的出版社实行的第一次独立的印度颁布了中央检查秩序6月26日1975年 没有审查期间实施了前两个宣言的紧急情况在1962年和1971年当国家是打仗 根据印度宪法基本权利包括言论自由和新闻自由暂停在紧急状态期间 检查这在平时将否决成为不受宪法的挑战 利用紧急情况下许多镇压措施的形式通过执行非法定准则并发出指示检查员向新闻界 一个指示检查员如下 : “ 没有什么事情是将出版很可能会传达给人一种抗议或反对政府的措施 。 ” [ 10 ]

 

因此任何味道的批评政府的措施或行动几乎无一例外地被禁止即使批评是在清醒和措辞温和的语言 检查员剪刀适用任意和在一些情况下他决定接壤的闹剧 报价从圣雄甘地泰戈尔和尼赫鲁被禁止 主席发言的垄断和限制性贸易惯例委员会批评工作的公共部门的承诺是停电 其他可笑的情况包括禁止对消息的成员前王室卡莉达齐亚维拉亚特泰姬陵蹲在新德里火车站 ; 一份报告关于初级律师游行到德里高等法院 ; 报告在伦敦逮捕了著名的印度女演员为中心取消和新闻关于会议的野生生物委员会审议了授予狩猎许可证一定大王弟弟 。 [ 11 ] 这些禁令没有什么关系国家安全的或维护社会秩序和安宁但反映了反复无常工作主管部门的审查

 

一些检查员指示险恶像禁止任何提及转让高等法院法官禁止出版高级法院的判决裁定的审查 , “被害” 的消息的反对某些国家政府的修正案这提出了国家宪法禁止报告指称的非法贿赂期间提出的购买波音飞机和制止批评计划生育方案 。 [ 12 ] 的对象不只是扣留的信息但操纵新闻和观点以合法化紧急并使其可以接受的 一个悲惨的后果是不人道的做法如强迫绝育的年轻男子从后删除巴士及其他过分的过度热情的计划生育官员曝光更晚的事件之后当时的计划生育已成为诅咒的农村群众   一项紧迫而重要的方案受到严重挫折感谢镇压言论自由的检查员

 

司法措施

 

印度司法机构尤其是国家高级法院展示惊人的勇气值得称赞下跌检查员命令并坚持正确的持不同政见者即使在紧急情况 高级法院在其划时代的孟买判决比诺德饶v问Masani , [ 13 ] 于1976年2月10日宣布

 

            它的作用不是根据检查员的检查以使所有的报纸和期刊削减帆一个风或拖车沿在一个单一文件或发言合唱同一个声音说话 这不是为他行使其法定权力迫使公众舆论到一个单一的模具或把新闻变成一种手段洗脑市民 根据检查令任命检查员的保姆的民主而不是它的掘墓人 ... 仅仅因为持不同政见者反对或批评是表示强烈的措辞没有理由禁止其出版 ... [ 14 ]

 

然而法院提醒说持不同政见者的声音不能采取的形式是煽动革命或颠覆活动然后不是将服务民主颠覆它 。 [ 15 ]

 

高级法院在其判决中古吉拉特在 Vaidya v佩尼亚抨击检查指示强加给人民的面具窒息和扼杀 ” 。 在解释中 , “ 损害报告中, 法院指出

 

            和平抗议行动的任何政府的直接对象公众舆论和教育的最终目标越来越执政党的力量投在下次大选不是 ' 损害报告在所有 这样的公共教育 [ 原文 ] 主要是需要每一个民主国家 。 “ [ 16 ]

 

1975年至1977年紧急状态警察专员孟买不准举行公众集会所要处理的除其他外退休法官城市的高级法院和最高法院并在印度有可能被批评的紧急情况以及所采取的措施下 高等法院勇敢了原来的秩序 司法Tulzapurkar在他同意的判决说

 

            即使在紧急情况下目前在运作是合法的任何公民说宣告进入紧急状态这是立法行为是对总统的不合理或不必要的它是合法的任何公民说这些紧急情况正在维持生命的镇压民主异议和批评这些应该结束 ... [ 17 ]

 

这些判决交付时 ' 不便 ' 法官是从一国到另一国在印度 尽管如此高级法院上涨的机会 实际上这是他们最好小时

 

国家安全

 

一个常见的借口执行压制言论自由是援引的口号 ' 国家安全 ' 。 不幸的是这种执行索赔并不罕见产生timorousness在我们的司法哨兵导致不适当的态度尊重政府索赔

 

这不是建议法院应轻易解雇国家安全考虑的 问题是法官不应方面执行ipse迪克希特和多次秃头的说法威胁国家安全的教皇教条犯错误但应认为他们的怀疑因为搜索历史和经验表明这些问题往往是高度夸张是不存在的在某些情况下 采取案件批发撤离和重新安置的美国公民的日本后裔生活在西海岸的美国在第二次世界大战期间

 

弗雷德松本地出生的美国公民的日本血统而被定罪的是在一个地方所有的人从日本的祖先被排除排除根据发出的命令指挥一般杰杰奥德威特 是否符合宪法的行动是维护美国最高法院 。 [ 18 ] 信念是肯定的 年后的今天松请求美国地区法院于1984年加州的令状coram诺比斯搬出他的1942年定罪理由是政府的不当行为 。 [ 19 ] 在聆讯该案件的一些可怕的事实被带到了

 

委员会战时迁居和平民成立于1980年的一项国会法案一致认为军事必要性不值得排斥和被拘留的日裔 有大量可靠的证据的若干联邦民事和军事机构相抵触的报告一般德威特 In the course of the hearing it was established that several Department of Justice officials had pointed out to their superiors and others the ‘wilful historical inaccuracies and intentional falsehoods’ contained in the DeWitt Report. 该委员会是由前国会议员最高法院院长和内阁以及杰出的公民个人得出结论认为 , “ 广泛的历史原因而形成这些决定 [ 排斥和拘留 ] 有种族偏见战争的歇斯底里和失败政治领导 。 “ [ 20 ] 因此 , ” 一个严重的不公正是对美国公民和外国侨民的日本人的祖先 。 “ [ 21 ] 在听证会成立若干司法部官员指出以上级和其他的 ' 故意的历史错误和故意的谎言 ' 所载德威特报告 最糟糕的是政府蓄意扣留信息由法院当他们正在考虑的重大问题军事上的必要 ” , 并提供误导性信息的文件提交法院 令人鼓舞的是 ,美国政府承认其同意与该委员会的意见今天的决定在在于推翻法院的历史 。 ” [ 22 ]

 

法官帕特尔谁试图采取行动难忘的结论是 : “ 仍然在我们的网页的法律和政治的历史 ... 历史先例它作为一个不断告诫说在战争时期或宣布军事需要我们的机构必须保持警惕保护公民的宪法保障 它作为一个警告说在危难时刻的盾牌军事必要性和国家安全的决不能用来保护政府的行动密切注意和问责制 它作为一个警告说在国际敌对和对抗的机构立法行政和司法必须作好准备以行使其权力以保护公民免受零用恐惧和偏见是很容易引起 。 “ [ 23 ]

 

这种谨慎应该永远是最重要的司法头脑时法院正面临着艰巨的和专横的索赔要求的国家安全

 

此外危害国家安全不应是在假设的可能性 理由压制言论自由和其他相关的自由所需要的是一个真正的可能性的危险 ,一个强大的概率

 

这不是一个不切实际的处方 例如以色列司法部门已经不允许言论自由是受制于国家安全的说法尽管事实是以色列面临着一个真正的和持续的威胁其安全 在具有里程碑意义的案件施尼策尔决定于1988年法院取消了首席军事检查员命令禁止出版的一篇文章批评主任的以色列情报部门摩萨德 法院裁定 : “ 出版批评的运作没有直接确定性主任设立了一个严重威胁到国家安全也许会是一个遥远的可能性 ,但这不是最后的标准将被视为在我们的法律制度 ... 一个自由的社会里不可能存在没有自由的媒体 因此新闻界必须能够发挥其作用 ; 出版报刊文章应禁止只有在有近因肯定国家安全受到严重威胁 。 “ [ 24 ]

 

五, 仇恨言论

 

            一个强有力的来源限制言论自由在印度是其刑法其中涉及违反宗教和惩罚某些类型的表达可能是松散的所谓的仇恨言论 ” 。 演讲或著作促进敌意仇恨恶意或不和谐不同宗教种族或语言群体或种姓或社区禁止科153A的印度刑法典 ( IPC )技术。 一个相关的规定第153B禁止制作或出版的指摘或断言这意味着

 

            任何类别的人不能由于其成员的任何宗教种族语言或区域集团或种姓或社会承担真正的信仰和忠诚印度宪法作为法律建立或维护主权和领土完整的印度

 

            言论故意故意伤口宗教感情的任何人处以298节的IPC 语音和文字的蓄意和恶意的意图侮辱宗教或宗教信仰的任何阶层的公民被禁止和惩罚的第295A章的IPC 。 [ 25 ] 写作所涉及的上述类别可以发出通知宣布将政府没收并随即每本书的副本或书面形式例如可以将予以没收 受害的一方可以向高等法院入禀申请撤销该宣言没收 。 [ 26 ]

 

            这些板块这是英国颁布的殖民统治期间没有受到任何反感言论自由等 根本的理由的规定是维护公众的和平与安宁的国家如印度宗教激情可以很容易地引起和发炎 英国不想宗教骚乱事件他们手中而不是真正关心的宗教信条是谁宣称他们 因此任何言语或书面形式是否真或假蓄意和故意侮辱宗教或愤怒的宗教感情的一类或社区是被禁止的 同时意识到这是不可能有全面禁止宗教话语或辩论 基督教和伊斯兰教是强迫宗教 ; 转换是合法的 ,只要它没有带来武力或欺诈行为 事实上有强烈关注的基督教传教士当这些条款草案中的形式除非有要求故意成立这将是非常困难的人以传福音和蔓延根据之间的土生土长的印度

 

            的背景和历史的第295A章的IPC惩罚侮辱宗教有趣 这是于1927年颁布的判决后拉合尔高等法院在什么是俗称Rangila拉苏尔情况 。 [ 27 ] 阿道Rangila拉苏尔出版其中有进攻提及先知穆罕默德个人生活 高级法院认为检察机关发起根据第153A是可持续的因为没有法律的书面不能导致敌意或仇恨不同宗教社区之间尽管它肯定是冒犯穆斯林社区 有一个强烈的穆斯林 以及不合理需求约解散司法达利普辛格谁提供了判决他顺便说一下一个基督徒 ) , 有一个请求的法律发生改变

 

            该报告的专责委员会处理颁布第295A章中的IPC是重大的 委员会强调实质的罪行的污辱宗教或宗教感情的愤怒必须是唯一的或小学或至少是蓄意的和自觉的意图 。 ” [ 28 ] 该委员会留下了深刻的印象了论点大意是一种侮辱宗教或信仰的宗教的追随者可能会造成真诚的作家目的是促进某种程度的社会改革管理这种冲击的追随者宗教作为确保通知而采取的任何批评以便作出 因此我们扩增改为 ' 与故意 ' 插入提及恶意我们认为这一节我们现在已经演变将是既全面又在同一时间不能太宽的申请 。 [ 29 ]

 

            因此第295A章的IPC制定惩罚侮辱宗教或宗教信仰的任何一类 ” , 如果这样做的故意和恶意的意图

 

            是否符合宪法的第295A章的IPC有人质疑最高法院审理的案件拉姆吉拉尔么 。 [ 30 ] 最高法院维持其效力理由是限制言论自由问题的部分是合理的是所涵盖负责 ' 公共秩序 ' 。 推理法院该科没有任何惩罚的行为和一切侮辱宗教或宗教信仰某一阶层的公民但是是针对行为的故意和恶意的意图玷污宗教感情的一类公民 的话来说最高法院 : “ 计算的趋势这加重形式的侮辱显然扰乱公共秩序 ” 。 [ 31 ]

 

需要灵敏度

 

在印度的宗教感情很容易肆虐攻击宗教信仰或做法 有情况下出版了一本严厉批评某一宗教或其创始人导致骚乱和广泛的干扰 该名男子谁写Rangila拉苏尔其中描绘先知是不道德的人被杀害在法庭上 著作在印度来判断在现有的条件在该国根据他们在将被视为谁的人阅读和他们的反应 ,这取决于强度的信仰和感情的人的宗教信条和做法抨击 有一个英文词说很难打破没有骨头 不幸的是在某些情况下在印度这样做的话很难打破清真寺和庙宇 同时绝不能忘记的是印度是一个世俗的民主国家而不仅仅是保障的自由鼓吹实践和传播宗教而且还良心 人的宗教和无神论都得到了保障基本人权的印度宪法 可能是宗教的虔诚的赞美 同样可以谴责无神论者或嘲笑马克思主义的 ' 鸦片的群众

 

法院在印度试图平衡价值言论自由与维护社会秩序和安宁 这一趋势的决定是批评宗教和宗教信仰是允许提供它不降以卑鄙或诽谤滥用任何宗教或其创始人 人们可以合法地批评的原则和某一宗教特征他们是不合逻辑或不合理或历史上不正确的 但它不允许谴责的创始人宗教或先知是venerates不道德的人或欺诈和骗子 法院将在这种情况下推断出可能的蓄意和恶意的意图侮辱宗教特别是如果语言辱骂或诽谤 。 [ 32 ]   这取决于最终的办法法官 他们是否重视体重言论自由或者他们更关心的是维护法律和秩序

 

遇到的主要困难是因为这些法律的选择性执法这对不同的宗教群体在不同的场合 此外其执行在某些情况下一直是政治操纵的结果 禁止拉什迪撒旦诗篇是一个典型的例子 一些穆斯林领袖谁对他们自己也承认还没有看过这本书在所有会见了当时的印度总理拉吉夫甘地画耸人听闻的图片会发生什么如果这本书并不禁止重弹的可能性后深异化在穆斯林社会对大会党如果政府没有采取行动 政府出于选举的考虑实现了可疑的区别使印度的第一个世俗的民主国家在世界上禁止这本书 造成的印象是政府已屈服于少数穆斯林原教旨主义的压力

 

但在有些情况下的书籍很重要的一些印度教的宗教人士或领导人已经被禁止又考虑到教派的压力不论其性质和内容的图书 一个实例是非官方禁止拉什迪小说在旷野最后一声叹息这是被一些人的印度教狂热分子属于一个政党在希夫森纳维是一个讽刺其领导人平衡萨克雷 这种行动是对当局的看法和其他穆斯林的一个实例政府屈从于印度教压力

 

这正是感知反对颁布的IPC第295A章   5表示异议委员会委员

 

            “这是一个令人遗憾的让步狂热 ,它将与此相反会使情况变得更糟 ; 每一方指责其他著作的出版是对他们的宗教政府将再次被视为偏袒一方或另一方 。 ” [ 33 ]

 

值得注意的是一名成员的专责委员会 ,磷阿南达Charlu描述了在1886年颁布的第153A的IPC   作为一种危险的法例并已impolitic除其他原因的需要政府一方或出现副作用一方对另一个 在我的谦虚判断它只会加剧的邪恶它意味着消除 远未愈合的分歧依然存在或者现在然后浮现这将扩大差距鼓励阴险男子捣鬼的隐形 ... [ 34 ]

他的反对不仅洞察力而且还预言

 

可以煽动仇恨的言论受到压制和刑事犯罪 答案取决于我们的理解是煽动仇恨的言论 从广义上讲是任何煽动仇恨的言论表达stigmatises一个人缺乏完整或能力不值得尊重和尊严不为在社会中的地位因为该人的种族宗教信仰或肤色 不能有任何否认的话可以伤害严重所造成的损害他们可以是非常严重和痛苦 欧洲人权委员会在同性恋新闻v联合王国 [ 35 ] 认识到必须保护公民的权利不被侵犯的宗教感情的出版物

 

 

 

标准JUDJEMENT

 

这种保护应采取的形式是取缔表达及其犯罪 我想不是 损害或伤害的感情是一种非常主观的问题 他们的感受是要考虑的 毫无疑问司法决定强调在判断的影响讲话或书面的标准必须采用合理的人的普通常识和感情而不是那些谁气味伤害侮辱和敌视和在每一个不利临界点的观点 但在实践中是如何区分狂热从热切和虔诚的信徒 事实上更多的人相信永恒的真理他或她的信仰是在更大的伤害将受到限制

 

印度教将大大冒犯声称拉姆不是一个历史人物和圣者Krishna有强烈的爱情倾向 基督徒肯定会生气如果他是说耶稣不是神的启示或并没有结束但与基督是上帝的使者后穆罕默德 ullah who is a later manifestation of God and the founder of the Bahai religion. 一名穆斯林必定是愤怒的理论穆罕默德只有一个行中的先知并已成功地由另一先知即巴哈 ¢ 乌拉谁是后来表现上帝的创始人巴哈教的宗教 ullah who claims to symbolise the second return of Christ is described as a deluded person. 同样是巴哈教将是最伤害的过程中如果一个宗教辩论巴哈 ¢ 乌拉谁索赔象征基督的第二次返回描述为是一种迷惑人 天主教徒的感情肯定会受伤的理论如果教皇犯错误和他们的信仰中的圣母受胎描绘成童话故事 和新教徒不会少伤害如果亨利八世被称为过度夸大的君主而不是后卫的信仰 至于无神论者和不可知论者 是他们的感情没有受伤如果他们被称为邪恶的人其中一个特殊的地方已预留了但丁永恒的地狱 神学辩论和历史话语将几乎是不可能的如果 ' 伤害感情可被用来压制言论自由

 

如果我们是真正的理想珍惜民主和真正的言论自由我们必须给予公平和诚实的外地比赛的所有无限种类的曲柄和狂热者和自我任命的拯救人类提供了他们的声音是不是煽动暴力和表达缺乏成分蓄意和恶意伤害他人的感情

 

Furthermore, in any movement for religious or social reform, feelings of the persons who are keen to maintain the existing order and orthodoxies are bound to be hurt. Many practices supposed to be sanctioned by religion such as untouchability, sati (burning of a widow on the funeral pyre after her husband’s death), or stoning to death as a punishment for adultery, would be rightly condemned by reformers. It must be remembered that to bring about reforms and changes, especially where deep-rooted practices and prejudices are prevalent, it may be necessary to administer a shock by having recourse to expression which is trenchant. That would certainly be injurious to the feelings of those who adhere to these practices but it would certainly not be a legitimate ground to proscribe such expression, because otherwise it would be impossible to effect any reforms.

 

Laws designed to prevent expression which is hurtful would suffer from vagueness and the tests for their application would usually be lacking in precision. Freedom of expression cannot be made dependent upon such subjective elements which would play a dominant role in the law’s enforcement. There would be serious difficulties in enforcing such laws.

 

Moreover, criminal laws prohibiting hate speech and expression encourage intolerance, divisiveness and unreasonable interference with freedom of expression. [36] Fundamentalist Christians, religious Muslims and devout Hindus would then seek to invoke the criminal machinery against each other’s religion, tenets or practices. That is what is increasingly happening today in India. We need not more repressive laws but more free speech to combat bigotry and to promote tolerance.

 

Besides, there is a grave danger of minority regimes misusing hate speech laws against the majority. This happened in India during the British colonial rule and also in South Africa where these laws were invoked by the minority white regime to suppress the protest and dissent of the majority population.

 

On balance, advocacy of objectionable doctrines however strong and vigorous but which lacks the ingredient of incitement to violence cannot legitimately be prohibited and criminalised. If a person wants to deny the reality of the Holocaust or to propagate the scientifically false and discredited theory of superiority based on race and colour the response should be one of ridicule, contempt and effective rebuttal. To overact and prohibit such racist nonsense is to do too great an honour to the questionable expression; it may confer upon the speaker or the writer the halo of a martyr.

 

It is essential to bear in mind the vital distinction between mere dissemination and advocacy of obnoxious ideas and doctrines which cause injury to feelings without more, and speech which incites persons to violence. For example, it is one thing to say that migrant workers belonging to certain communities are lazy, dirty and dishonest and should be deported. It is quite another to portray them as a grave threat to the community and advocate their liquidation. Hate speech may be proscribed in the category of cases where expression from its very nature or manner of expression and time and place considerations would in all reasonable likelihood lead to imminent commission of an offence or result in unlawful action, because preservation of public peace and order is a matter in which all citizens have a vital stake no less than in the preservation of freedom of expression.

 

There is another class of cases which may warrant proscription of hate speech, namely, systematic vilification of individuals or groups by reason of their colour, race, religion or beliefs and which is likely to evoke extreme feelings of opprobrium and subject the targeted class to discrimination and social and economic disabilities, especially in matters of housing and employment. Persistent propagation of hate propaganda can undermine the dignity and self-worth of target group members, lead to erosion of tolerance and mutual respect that must flourish in a multi-cultural society and result in tensions which can erupt into violent conflicts between different groups in the community. Besides the victims of virulent hate propaganda generally are vulnerable groups who do not possess the resources to defend themselves and their protection can be the legitimate concern of any democratic society committed to the ideal of equality. In such cases hate speech may be regulated or restricted provided the statutory provisions are drawn narrowly and with precision and the restrictions imposed are not arbitrary or disproportionate.

 

However it cannot be over-emphasised that expression which does not constitute incitement to imminent violence cannot be suppressed on account of threats of violence by persons who find the expression deeply offensive. Freedom of expression cannot be held to ransom by fanatics and bigots who are so utterly convinced of the infallibility of their beliefs that they resent any unfavourable comments on their Faith. The duty of a government in such cases would plainly be to put down violence, punish the lawbreakers, rather than penalise the writer or the speaker and suppress expression. A pluralistic society can hardly survive if a religious or an ethnic group demands not merely equality and the vote, but a violent veto on policies or doctrine which do not accept its tenets and moral judgments.

 

VIII.   DEFAMATION

 

One of the permissible heads of restrictions on freedom of expression is defamation. In India there can be criminal prosecution for defamation with imprisonment for up to two years and a fine. There is also the civil remedy of damages for defamation. The possibility of criminal prosecution and imposition of heavy damages in civil suits against the press can have a chilling effect which can at times be freezing. Thus a potential of clash between freedom of expression and laws or measures protecting reputation, which is the purpose of the law of defamation, is inevitable. This poses a real problem. How is this problem of a rational accommodation of reputational and expressive interests to be resolved?

 

The United States Supreme Court in its landmark decision in New York Times v Sullivan [37] ruled that in the case of a public official every inaccurate statement is not actionable unless it is made with malice, ie with actual knowledge of the falsity of the statement or with reckless disregard of the true state of affairs. The reasoning is that erroneous statements are unavoidable in free debate in a democracy and must be tolerated because debate on public issues should be uninhibited, robust, and wide open and freedom of the press must have “the breathing space it needs to survive”. These dicta have been approved by the House of Lords in the Derbyshire County Council case. [38] The Lords enunciated a salutary rule, namely, that “it would be contrary to public interest to permit libel actions by institutions of government because that would place an undesirable fetter on freedom of speech.” [39] These principles have been laid down in case of libel actions by public officials . The emphasis is on the importance of protection to politically significant expression, to protect citizen critics. These principles have been extended also to public figures.

 

Another rationale offered is that a politician is better placed to defend his or her own reputation through the media and through the legislative assemblies. Besides a public official, a politician or a public figure must, by the very nature of his or her conduct and action, accept intense scrutiny and sharp criticism. At the same time it must not be overlooked that exposure of public officials to unfair criticism by the press would tend to deter sensitive and honourable men from seeking public positions of trust and responsibility and leave them open to others who have no respect for their reputation. This deterrence can be severe in a society where malicious allegations and vile insinuations are levelled at persons and institutions with sadistic delight and apparent immunity by a motivated section of the press.

 

The Supreme Court of India in its path-breaking judgment in R. Rajagopal v State of Tamil Nadu [40] has ruled that no action for libel lies “even where the publication is based upon facts and statements which are not true, unless the public official establishes that the publication was made with reckless disregard for truth. In such a case, it would be enough for a member of the press or the media to prove that he acted after a reasonable verification of the facts; it is not necessary to prove that what has been written is true.” [41] Now comes the important judicial caveat. “Of course, where the publication is proved to be false and actuated by malice or personal animosity, the defendant would have no defence and would be liable for damages.” [42] This is the caution which the Press must bear in mind and can ignore only at its peril. Besides, every man, whether he is in public life or not, is entitled not to have downright brazen lies told about him. The constitutional guarantee of free speech does not confer a fundamental right to defame persons and harm their reputations by false and baseless allegations and by innuendoes and insinuations. A person’s right to good name and honour is also a basic human right.

 

Remember the immortal words of Shakespeare:

 

Good name in man and woman, dear my lord,

Is the immediate jewel of their souls.

Who steals my purse steals trash …

But he that filches from me my good name

Robs me of that which not enriches him,

And makes me poor indeed.

 

XI. DECENCY AND MORALITY

 

            One of the heads on which freedom of the media can be restricted under the Indian Constitution is ‘decency or morality’. In matters of morality and obscenity courts do not always reflect contemporary standards and perceptions though they purport to do so. ‘Obscenity’, ‘indecency’ and ‘immorality’ are equivocal and relative concepts. Sin, as Pascal reminds us, is geographical. Standards of morality and decency in the same society vary from time to time and from person to person and there is no uniform test of community standards of acceptance.

 

Judges, despite valiant efforts, have failed to evolve a satisfactory definition of obscenity. The Federal Court of Appeal in Canada [43] concluded that the expressions ‘immoral’ and ‘indecent’ are highly subjective and emotive, and freedom of expression cannot be restricted on these grounds because uncertainty and vagueness are unconstitutional vices when they are used to restrict guaranteed rights and freedoms. The judicial predicament is vividly summed up in the lament of Justice Stewart of the US Supreme Court who confessed that he could not define obscenity but recognised it when he saw it. [44] Apparently, obscenity, like beauty, lies in the eyes of the beholder.

 

Indian Judges have evinced varying perceptions of indecency and obscenity. DH Lawrence’s book, Lady Chatterley’s Lover , was held to be obscene by the Supreme Court of India in the case of Ranjit Udeshi [45] decided on 19 August 1964. The Court came to the surprising conclusion that the book was obscene judged “from our community standards and there is no social gain to us which can be said to preponderate.” [46]

 

Two decades later, in 1985, the Supreme Court adopted a less illiberal approach in Samresh v Amal Mitra [47] and held that the Bengali novel, Prajapati, was not obscene “merely because slang and unconventional words have been used in the book in which there has been emphasis on sex and description of female bodies.” [48] The Court emphasised that vulgarity and strong erotic language cannot be equated with obscenity.

 

In its recent judgment concerning the movie, The Bandit Queen , [49] the Court adopted a more liberal and rational approach. It ruled that neither nudity nor vulgarity can necessarily be equated with obscenity. It endorsed the observations in its previous decision in Samaresh Bose [50] in the context of a novel that, “If a reference to sex by itself in any novel is considered to be obscene and not fit to be read by adolescents, adolescents will not be in a position to read any novel and will have to read books which are purely religious.” [51] With reference to the objected brief scene of frontal nudity of Phoolan Devi, the bandit in the movie in question, the Court observed: “Nakedness does not always arouse the baser instinct. The reference by the Tribunal to the film Schindler’s List was pertinent. There is a scene in it of rows of naked men and women, shown frontally, being led into the gas chambers of a Nazi concentration camp. Not only are they about to die but they have been stripped in their last moments of the basic dignity of human beings. Tears are a likely reaction; pity, horror and a fellow feeling of shame are certain, except in the pervert who might be aroused.” The Court adopted the standard of an average person of reasonable sensibilities and ruled that “we do not censor to protect the pervert or to assuage the susceptibilities of the over-sensitive.” [52]

 

X. CONCLUSION

 

Tragedies in human affairs occur because of conflict between values, each of which is just as important as another. Freedom of expression is undoubtedly of inestimable value in a democratic society based on the Rule of Law. At the same time, there are other interests which are equally important like the right to a fair trial, and the right to privacy. Freedom of expression needs proper accommodation also with these rights.

 

In the ultimate analysis, the crux of the problem lies in striking the right balance, a difficult and delicate exercise. There can be no hard and fast rule, except one. When in doubt, resolve it in favour of expression rather than its suppression. And always remember the memorable words of that indomitable fighter for free speech, Charles Bradlaugh: “Better a thousand fold abuse of free speech than denial of free speech. The abuse dies in a day, but the denial slays the life of the people and entombs the hopes of the race.” [53]


[1]    NEHRU ‘S speech on 20 June 1916 in protest against the Press Act 1910.

[2] Shiva Rao (ed.), The Framing of India’s Constitution: A Study (New Delhi: Indian Institute of Public Administration, 1966), at 222.

 

 

[4]               Art 5.

[5]              San Jose , 1969.

[6]                AIR 1950 SC 129.

[7]                Virendra Kumar v State of Punjab AIR 1957 SC 896.

[8]                Ibid at 900.

[9]                Ibid at 903.

[10]              See Soli Sorabjee, The Emergency, Censorship and the Press in India 1975-77 (London: Writers and Scholars Educational Trust, 1977), 13.

[11]              Ibid, at 31, 27, 29.

[12]              Ibid, at 32, 36-38.

[13]              (1976) 78 Bom LR 125.

[14]              Ibid at 169.

[15]              Ibid.

[16] `             C. Vaidya v HD’Penha in Sp. CA 141/1976, 22 Mar 1976 (unreported).

[17]              NP Nathwani v Commissioner of Police (1976) 78 Bom LR 1 at 72.

[18]             Korematsu v United States 323 US 214 (1944).

[19]             Korematsu v United States (1984) 584 F Sup 1406.

[20]             Ibid at 1417

[21]             Ibid at 1420

[22]             Ibid.

[23]             Ibid.

[24]             Meir Schnitzer & Ors v Chief Military Censor HC 42(4) PD 611 (1988); 24 Israeli L.Rev 304.

[25]              “295A. Whoever, with deliberate and malicious intention of outraging the religious feelings of any class of citizens of India, by words, either spoken or written, or by signs or by visible representations or otherwise, insults or attempts to insult the religion or the religious beliefs of that class, shall be punished with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to three years, or with fine, or with both.”

[26]             S 94, CrPC 1973.

[27]              Raj Paul v Emperor AIR 1927 Lahore 590.

[28]              Select Committee Report, Gazette of India, Part V, 251 (17 Sep 1927).

[29]              Ibid at 251-52.

[30]              AIR 1957 SC 620.

[31]              Ibid at 623.

[32]              Shiv Ram v Punjab State AIR 1955 (Pun) 28; State of Mysore v Henry Rodrigues (1962) 2 Cr. LJ 564; T. Parameswaran v Dist. Collector, Ernakulam AIR 1988 Ker 175

[33]              Select Committee Report, Gazette of India, Part V, 251 [17 September 1927], at 253.

[34]              Select Committee Report, Gazette of India, Part V, 15 (5 Feb 1898).

[35]             5 EHRR 123 (1983).

[36]             R v Chief Metropolitan Magistrate , ex parte Choudhury (1991) 1 QB 429.

[37]             376 US 254.

[38]             Derbyshire County Council v Times Newspapers [1993] 1 All ER 1011.

[39]             Ibid at 1019.

[40]             (1994) 6 SCC 632 at 649.

[41]             Ibid at 650.

[42]             Ibid.

[43]             Re Luscher and Deputy Minister, Revenue Canada 17 DLR (4th) 503.

[44]             Jacobellis v Ohio , 12 L 2d 793 at 804 (per Justice Stewart).

[45]             Ranjit Udeshi v Union of India AIR 1965 SC 881.

[46]              Ibid, at 891.

[47]             AIR 1986 SC 967.

[48]              Ibid, at 983.

[49]              Bobby Art International v Om Pal Singh Hoon , (1996) 4 SCC 1.

[50]              Supra, note 57.       

[51]             Ibid at 984.

[52]             Bobby Art International , supra note 58, at 15.

[53]             Bradlaugh, quoted in Soli J Sorabjee, The Law of Press Censorship in India (Bombay: NM Tripathi Pvt Ltd, 1976), at 6.

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